Sudan, a 50 million–person country in northeast Africa, has descended into a brutal civil war that has created one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises. Fighting pitting the national army (Sudanese Armed Forces, SAF) against the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has raged since April 2023. By late 2025, analysts estimate at least 150,000 people killed (some estimates run much higher) and over 11 million internally displaced – the largest displacement crisis in the world. More than 4 million refugees have fled to neighboring countries. Around 60% of Sudan’s population (≈30 million people) now need urgent aid. Aid agencies warn of widespread famine and disease: UNICEF calls Sudan “the world’s largest humanitarian crisis,” with millions of children in famine zones and whole communities starving.
Geography and Demographics
Sudan lies immediately south of Egypt, spanning desert and savanna from the Red Sea to the borders of Chad, Central African Republic, Ethiopia and South Sudan. Its roughly 50 million people are overwhelmingly Muslim (about 97%, mostly Sunni). Ethnically, roughly 70% of Sudanese identify as Arab (mostly in the north and east), with the remainder from various indigenous African tribes (such as the Fur, Zaghawa, Masalit, Beja, Nubians, and others). (Nearly all these ethnic groups are also Muslim.) A small Christian and animist minority lives mainly in rural areas bordering South Sudan. Under Sudan’s post-independence governments, northern Arabic-speaking elites have dominated politics and economics, leading to long-standing grievances among the African ethnic groups. These divisions underlie much of the current conflict.
Geographically, Sudan is large – the third-largest country in Africa – but its wealth is concentrated in oil (mostly now gone to South Sudan) and gold. In recent years Sudan became one of Africa’s top gold producers (around 18–42 tons in 2022–2025). However, much of the gold is smuggled abroad. Africanews reports that over 50% of gold production leaves Sudan illegally; other analyses suggest up to 90% is smuggled for illicit trade. This black-market gold trade has helped finance armed groups and fueled corruption. The government collects almost no revenue from most mining, undermining the economy and fueling insurgencies. In 2025, Sudan’s per-capita income was still only a few hundred dollars per year, making it one of the poorest countries in the world despite its resources.
Legacy of Conflict under al-Bashir
Sudan’s modern history was dominated by military regimes. Omar al-Bashir seized power in 1989 and led a 30-year dictatorship. Under Bashir, Sudan fought multiple civil wars. The brutal Darfur conflict (starting in 2003) was especially horrific: government-backed Arab militias (the Janjaweed) massacred tens of thousands of non-Arab civilians and displaced millions. The International Criminal Court later condemned those atrocities as genocide against Darfur’s African tribes. (Prominent tribes targeted included the Fur, Zaghawa and Masalit.) During Bashir’s rule, Sudan’s economy collapsed under corruption, sanctions and mismanagement. Bashir’s government even split in 2011 when South Sudan seceded after decades of war. By 2019 mass protests erupted against Bashir’s regime – organized around economic hardships and calls for democracy. In April 2019 the army and allied paramilitaries finally ousted Bashir.
After Bashir, a fragile transitional government was formed. This Sovereignty Council included both military leaders and civilians. Two generals were dominant: Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, commander of the Sudanese Armed Forces, and Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (nicknamed “Hemedti”), leader of the RSF. (The RSF itself grew out of the old Janjaweed militias and had been formally organized in 2013 under Bashir.) Burhan and Dagalo initially presented a united front, but underlying rivalries soon emerged over power and resources. By October 2021, General Burhan forcibly dissolved the civilian government, declared a state of emergency, and re-appointed himself head of a new military-led council. This second coup reignited tensions.
Spark of the 2023 Civil War
For a time after 2021, Sudan drifted under military rule. But infighting quickly grew between Burhan’s army (SAF) and Dagalo’s RSF. Both commanders jockeyed for supremacy: the RSF had its own armed brigades and controlled many gold mines, while the army controlled the official military and state apparatus. The key bone of contention was a planned integration of the RSF into the national army. The RSF feared losing autonomy, and neither leader would accept a subordinate role. In April 2023 these tensions exploded. On April 15, 2023 clashes broke out in Khartoum between SAF and RSF units. The two once-collaborative forces had split into open warfare. Neither side showed any restraint in protecting civilians. What began as a power struggle for control of the state quickly turned into a full-fledged civil war.
Course of the War
Fighting spread rapidly from the capital. Initially the RSF seized key sites in Khartoum (including the presidential palace) and the airport, using Sudanese battle tanks and troop carriers. The army in turn bombarded rebel-held neighborhoods from the air. By mid-2023, combat had engulfed the entire country – across Khartoum, Darfur, Kordofan, and eastern provinces. Neither side achieved a quick victory. Over the following two years (2023–2025) the frontlines largely froze along regional lines. Roughly speaking, the SAF holds most of northern and eastern Sudan (including the Nile corridor and Red Sea coast), while the RSF dominates much of the west (all of Darfur and Kurdufan regions). Both armies still contest parts of central Sudan.
Key battles include: the RSF’s long siege of El Fasher (capital of North Darfur) which began in mid-2024 and lasted 17 months. On October 26, 2025 the RSF finally overran El Fasher. Within days, horrific atrocities followed. Doctors and observers report that at least 1,500 civilians were killed in El Fasher in the first three days after its fall. Satellite analysts from Yale University documented lines of corpses and pools of blood around the city’s hospitals – evidence of mass executions. UN and NGO sources say the RSF specifically targeted the city’s non-Arab population (Fur, Zaghawa, Berti and others), treating El Fasher as an “Arab-only” zone.
Other areas of Darfur have also seen ethnic violence. In May 2024 Human Rights Watch reported that the RSF was conducting ethnic cleansing of Masalit civilians in West Darfur (El Geneina area), with thousands killed between April and November 2023. [These villages had historically been Masalit lands.] The RSF’s leader, General Dagalo, was himself a Janjaweed commander during the 2000s Darfur war. Many RSF fighters appear to hold the same ideology. Witnesses describe how some RSF units roam through villages killing Black African tribespeople. In short, analysts warn that the RSF’s campaign in Darfur is deliberately aimed at eliminating non-Arab African communities.
Meanwhile, the army has also been accused of atrocities. SAF jet and helicopter strikes on residential areas have killed civilians. The army reportedly launched air raids on marketplaces and villages near RSF lines. Human Rights Watch and UN sources say dozens of civilians died in army bombardments. Like the RSF, the army shows little regard for discrimination in following military targets – it has also been accused of sexual violence, torture of detainees, and summary executions.
Humanitarian Crisis
The human cost of the conflict is staggering. The CFR’s Global Conflict Tracker (Nov 2025) notes “up to 400,000” killed and “more than eleven million” displaced since April 2023. (Other estimates place the death toll around 150,000 as of late 2025.) Over half of Sudan’s population is now displaced or cut off. Over 4 million refugees have fled into neighboring Chad, South Sudan, Ethiopia, and beyond. Aid agencies call it the world’s worst displacement emergency. The United Nations reports that 30 million Sudanese – roughly 60% of the population – require humanitarian aid. However, only a fraction of the needed $4–5 billion has been received; donors have so far provided far less than half of required funds.
By late 2025, crises include:
Famine and Malnutrition: Two areas of Sudan have officially declared famine (El Fasher in North Darfur and Kadugli in South Kordofan). Another 20+ regions are at high risk. Over 21 million people face acute food insecurity. Severe acute malnutrition among children has soared. UNICEF reports 1.4 million children living in famine or near-famine conditions. In North Darfur alone, UNICEF estimates 150,000 children are likely to suffer life-threatening malnutrition in 2025. The World Food Programme warns that continued war could trigger “the worst hunger crisis in recent history.” Both sides have been accused of deliberately using starvation: blocking food convoys, looting food aid, and trapping civilians behind sieges (as in El Fasher, which was cut off for 16+ months).
Diseases and Health: With most hospitals destroyed or nonfunctional, vaccine campaigns and medical care have collapsed. Outbreaks of cholera, malaria, dengue, and other diseases are rampant. Patients and health workers have been targeted – for example, WHO reports that over 460 people were killed in one El Fasher hospital after the RSF took the city, and roughly 460 more (staff and patients) were killed or abducted in the city’s final hospital.
Children: The toll on children is severe. UNICEF notes roughly 14 million Sudanese children (4 out of 5) have no access to education. Tens of thousands of children have been killed or injured in attacks (UNICEF counted at least 350 grave child rights violations in North Darfur alone over 6 months). Over a million children are acutely malnourished or at risk. Many children are separated from families amidst the chaos.
Infrastructure: Beyond homes and schools, virtually all infrastructure has been devastated. Power, water and sanitation systems have collapsed in many areas. Markets, farms and roads are ruined: the planting seasons have been missed, promising a long-lasting food shortage even if fighting stops.
In sum, “Sudan endures the world’s largest humanitarian and displacement crisis”, writes Brookings scholars, noting that even the Geneva Conventions’ ban on using starvation as a weapon is being ignored. Aid workers describe hunger, disease and violence spreading faster than ever. Humanitarian organizations plead for access; UNICEF and the UN say Sudan needs billions more in aid, and “unfettered access” to besieged areas. So far, global attention has been painfully limited, leading observers to call Sudan a “forgotten war”.
External Involvement
Sudan’s conflict has quickly become a proxy battlefield. The two warring sides have different foreign supporters:
The Sudanese Army (SAF) is backed by Egypt, Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Russia has also engaged through its Wagner mercenaries and arms, reportedly shipping missiles to the army. These countries have historically aligned with Sudan’s military or see strategic interests (Nile water for Egypt, ports for Russia, countering Islamist influence for others).
The Rapid Support Forces (RSF) are closely associated with the **United Arab Emirates (UAE)**. U.S. intelligence alleges the UAE is supplying advanced Chinese drones and other weapons to Dagalo’s RSF, often paid for in gold. (In 2025, Sudan even filed a case at the International Court of Justice accusing the UAE of arms smuggling – though the court declined jurisdiction.) The UAE officially denies involvement, but analysts note it has huge investments in Sudanese gold and sees Dagalo as a key partner. Russia’s Wagner group and Sudan’s neighbors (Chad, Ethiopia, Libya’s rebel factions) have also been drawn in various ways.
All these external players have a stake in Sudan’s resources and regional balance. As one analyst notes, **“this conflict could not go on without external support”**. Unfortunately, their involvement has also prolonged the war. Neither side faces real pressure to stop: Gulf states and powers continue funneling arms and money. Regional mediation efforts have been weak.
Ceasefire Attempts and Prospects
Several ceasefire proposals have been floated, without success. In late 2025 the U.S., Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the UAE presented a three-phase plan: a 3-month humanitarian truce, followed by a permanent ceasefire and a 9-month transition to civilian rule. The RSF publicly agreed to observe the first 3-month truce, but the army has rejected it so far. Historically, both SAF and RSF have signed ceasefires only to violate them within days. In fact, as Dagalo’s forces celebrated in El Fasher, the army expelled senior UN aid staff from Port Sudan – indicating how deeply mutual mistrust runs.
For now, the fighting grinds on. Neither side can claim total victory, and frontlines have largely hardened. Sudan experts warn of a prolonged stalemate. The risk of partition looms: many observers now fear Darfur (west Sudan) could split off under RSF control while the army holds northern Sudan. Without a decisive diplomatic shift, the conflict – and its civilian suffering – may continue for years. As CFR analyst Mike Froman put it: Sudan’s war is likely to remain “the forgotten war” unless the world acts quickly.
References
United Nations and aid agencies reports on Sudan’s crisis.
Al Jazeera, Reuters, Brookings, CFR and other media analysis of RSF-SA conflict.
UNICEF and WHO press briefings on famine, malnutrition, and attacks on hospitals.
(All factual statements above are drawn from these and other current sources cited inline.)
